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Teacher at Sea 2006, First Leg - Christine Muir
Christine holds a MS in Marine Studies from the University of Delaware, Graduate College of Marine Studies, and a B.S. in Marine Science from the University of South Carolina. Christine is passionate about experiential education and field studies. She has lead several study abroad trips for students investigating tropical marine ecology in Honduras and watershed ecology in Belize. Christine enjoys running, hiking, and biking in the beautiful Bay Area. Day 1 - Welcome Aboard! My name is Christine Muir and I will be keeping the Teacher At Sea journal for the first leg of the ECOHAB-PNW cruise. I am a science teacher at the Woodside Priory School, in Portola Valley, CA (San Francisco Bay Area). My job on board the ship is to help scientists collect and process samples, as well as write a journal to allow people at home to understand what it is like to be on an oceanographic expedition. The purpose of this journal is to bring science to life in the classroom. The multidisciplinary field of oceanography is extremely exciting. Through reading this journal on a daily basis, you will get an inside perspective of conducting science at sea. I arrived at the R/V Thomas G. Thompson at the University of Washington wharf in Seattle, WA. The ship is impressive, with a length of 274', beam 52.5', and draft of 19'. This vessel hosts the scientists of ECOHAB - Pacific Northwest (ECOHAB-PNW), which are a group of scientists from five different agencies/institutions to study the ecology and oceanography or harmful algal blooms. The ship carries a crew of twenty-two officers and crew, two marine technicians and up to thirty-six scientists. The purpose of this cruise is to study the physiology, toxicology, ecology and oceanography of a toxic microscopic algae belonging to the Pseudo-nitzschia species off the Pacific Northwest coast. This is the last cruise of this 5-year exciting, long term study!
Day 2 - Set Sail N 47º 38'.9744 Today has been a busy day of scientists and crew setting up equipment and loading supplies. The agencies involved in this research expedition are San Francisco State University's Romberg Tiburon Center, University of Washington, NOAA's Northwest Fisheries Science Center, University of Maine, and University of Western Ontario, and following our progress and working up data are scientists from Canada's Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans at the Institute of Ocean Sciences. Each group of scientists onboard must set up their respective equipment in order to collect and analyze samples needed to fulfill their research objectives. This evening we left the University of Washington dock at 7 PM, and from now on I will switch to the 24 hour clock as done on all ships at sea, so 1900 for you landlubbers. All scientists and crew went to the weather decks to watch us leave port. As we left the UW's marine facility we went under a series of bridges and draw bridges heading toward Lake Union, to Salmon Bay and through the Ballard Locks exiting into Puget Sound. Tomorrow morning we will begin sampling in Puget Sound near Port Madison. Since leaving the dock, scientists and crew continue working to prepare for tomorrow's sampling. We had a safety meeting late this evening in which we listened to crew discuss safety practices and protocol, and finally a short science meeting outlining protocols. During the science meeting, we reviewed the sampling plan for the next day. Scientists worked late this evening, as we are anticipating a very busy day tomorrow! It is now 0030 and I am ready to go to my cabin and retire for the night!
Day 3 - Sampling Puget Sound N 47º 50'.0578 The day began by our collecting water samples throughout the water column from the first station in Puget Sound just offshore of Seattle, WA. Today's sampling scheme will involve collecting from five stations in the Puget Sound before moving further out into the Juan de Fuca eddy where we will continue to sample into the Pacific Ocean. Topic: ECOHAB-PNW - understanding harmful algal blooms The purpose of the ECOHAB-PNW project is to study the physiology, toxicology, ecology, and oceanography of toxigenic microscopic algae species belonging to the Pseudo-nitzschia genus. We have sampled off the Pacific Northwest coast twice a year since 2003 and this is our last cruise. The ECOHAB-PNW team has observed the conditions under which toxic cells are found offshore of British Columbia and Washington and then advected towards the coast of Washington where they contaminate shellfish. One of the most fundamental objectives of the project is to collect and study local water masses to determine where, when, why, and how toxic diatom blooms occur in the Pacific Northwest. ECOHAB-PNW scientists are specifically looking for the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia (PN), and the presence of the neurotoxin domoic acid. Domoic acid is a nerve toxin which causes harm to members of the marine ecosystem. Algae such as these, which cause harm to members of the marine ecosystem, are called Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). However, not all species of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia produce domoic acid and those that do produce this toxin, produce the toxin at variable levels. The factors that influence toxin production are one of the main questions being answered in this project. The ECOHAB-PNW science team is made up of six main groups which each study a particular piece of the puzzle to determine which environmental factors trigger or enhance the toxigenic effects of Pseudo-nitzschia and how the bloom physically moves from the open ocean to the coast. Each team of researchers is led by a principal investigator. The chief scientist is Dr. Barbara Hickey (University of Washington) who studies the physical oceanography of the area and the movement of the bloom. Dr. William Cochlan (Romberg Tiburon Center, San Francisco State University), Dr. Charles Trick (University of Western Ontario), and Dr. Mark Wells (University of Maine) investigate the ecophysiology of Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms. Drs. Cochlan and Wells also study the chemical oceanography of the water in which PN blooms grow. Dr. Vera Trainer (NOAA, Northwest Fisheries Science Center) studies the toxicology of domoic acid, while Dr. Evelyn Lessard (University of Washington) investigates the ecology of the diatom in relation to the planktonic food web. This multidisciplinary approach to answering a question is the backbone of the field of oceanography. In this field, scientists must study all pieces of the puzzle - biology, chemistry, physics, and ecology on so many levels (macro and micronutrients, different levels of the food web, etc.)! Each scientist must collect, analyze and communicate with other members of their science team for this to proceed effectively. A research project of this scale and complexity is a humble lesson in teamwork and collaboration! The sampling design, collection of water, and experiments on board the ship are also incredibly complex and well-designed. Keep reading the journal in the upcoming days to learn more about each team of researchers and science at sea!
Throughout the night, members of ECOHAB-PNW sampled as we passed the San Juan Islands and sailed out the Strait of Juan de Fuca hugging the northern (Canadian) side of the Strait. This morning we started sampling near Port San Juan on Vancouver Island. We are heading off the coast into a water mass called the Juan de Fuca Eddy. In the Eddy, we will continue to sample the water column, as well as release drifter buoys to track water movement within the eddy and the jets which separate from the Eddy. Topic: Physical oceanography - tracking water masses and blooms The physical oceanography of the waters off the coast of Washington and British Columbia determine whether a bloom of toxic algae developing offshore will move toward the shoreline of Washington where it can impact shellfish, beaches, and people. Dr. Barbara Hickey (University of Washington) is the chief scientist on this cruise and her research group investigates the physical oceanography patterns that enable offshore water to come toward the coast. Her group is primarily studying the role of the Juan de Fuca Eddy in bringing toxigenic Pseudo-nitzschia blooms to the coast where they have the potential to cause detrimental impacts. They are also comparing and contrasting water movement and characteristics from the eddy water versus water in the coastal upwelling zone. An eddy is a region of water moving within a circular pattern. The water rotates as a gyre and retains its individual characteristics for a period of weeks or months. Because of the circulation within an eddy, the water mass within the eddy does not mix much with surrounding water. Eddies can form at the surface as well as at depth, and can vary in size. The energy in an eddy gradually dissipates through friction causing the eddy circulation to slow down and eventually the eddy disappears. The Juan de Fuca Eddy persists seasonally from May to October on a yearly basis. This Eddy is formed by a number of factors which are still under investigation. It is currently thought that the Eddy forms due to a combination of coastal currents, local winds, water coming from the Strait of Juan de Fuca, tides, and topography of the seafloor (bathymetry). (There is a canyon under where the Eddy forms). The Eddy ranges from 10-30 miles in diameter and is characterized by a steady supply of inorganic nutrients such as nitrate and silicate. The eddy reaches to depths of well over 100 m from the sea surface. Today the Hickey research group released ten Brightwater drifters in different areas of the Eddy to follow the water patterns. Ocean drifters are devices that scientists use to follow patterns of water masses. The drifters can be placed in different areas to follow water circulation patterns as well as collect data on water temperature, salinity and other environmental parameters. Five of the drifters released today are drogued drifters, which means the floating buoy is attached to a large net (which acts like a sail) which is located at a certain depth below the surface. The net (or as scientists call it - a drogue) is attached to the surface buoy, which transmits its location and certain water characteristics to a satellite. This data is then downloaded through the internet onto a computer. The drogue enables the drifter to follow water circulation patterns at that particular depth. Today's drifters are following water circulation patterns at 25m depth. In addition to the drogued drifters, five surface drifters were deployed to follow surface circulation. All drifters were released in strategic locations to study the physics of the eddy, and will be collected again within the next few days to weeks depending on where they decide to go. Additionally, four stationary (moored) buoys are deployed by Dr. Hickey's team in the Eddy area from May - October. The deployment is done in association with the Canadian participants of the ECOHAB-PNW project based at the Institute of Ocean Sciences in Sidney, B.C. These buoys measure many variables in the water column - including currents, dissolved oxygen, temperature, salinity, amount of light etc - many of the factors which control currents and also phytoplankton growth. Drifter studies as well as sophisticated computer modeling efforts help the Hickey research group understand how PN get transported to the coast. If wind condition predictions become more precise, the computer models may eventually permit prediction of water movement from the Juan de Fuca eddy to the surrounding coastlines.
Yesterday we had rough, rolling seas as we left the Strait of Juan de Fuca and proceeded seaward to the offshore waters of the Juan de Fuca Eddy. The science team has to work continuously and carefully, despite the almost constant pitching and rolling of the ship from side to side. We are now off the southwestern coast of Washington State near Pt. Brown and Pt. Chehalis on either side of Grays Harbor. We are starting the grid survey at the southernmost point of the grid. During each ECOHAB-PNW cruise, the same grid pattern is followed to sample the waters off the coast of Washington and British Columbia in a consistent manner to permit year-to-year comparisons. Each grid line has at least eight sampling stations, and there are a total of eleven grid lines (transects). Today we are following the GH transect - sampling from the coast to offshore. (See map of grid pattern in photos below.) At each station we will deploy a CTD-equipped rosette which has a series of Niskin water sampling bottles attached to it. This rosette package allows us to collect water at many depths in the water column. In addition to the CTD cast, a plankton net is towed to collect phytoplankton, and special Go-Flo water bottles are used collect water for trace metal analysis at most stations. Topic: Pseudo-nitzschia - a toxic diatom Pseudo-nitzschia (PN) is a genus of diatoms. Diatoms are phytoplankton (microscopic algae) or literally "light-drifters." They may also be referred to as plant-like drifters. They are considered drifters because they cannot move to escape the effects of waves, tides, and oceanic currents. Phytoplankton are autotrophic and use photosynthesis to make their own food. They are extremely important primary producers in the ocean. Using the energy of the sun, they use dissolved carbon dioxide and water to create oxygen and carbohydrate and thus form the base of the marine food web. Diatoms are one of the most important and abundant phytoplankton in the marine environment. They occur in all regions of the oceans, but are most abundant in polar and temperate areas, and particularly in coastal zones. Diatoms are single-celled microscopic organisms that have a shell or frustule composed mostly of silica (glass). They are usually divided into two taxonomic groups based on their shape. Centric diatoms are circular with radial symmetry from a central point, whereas the pennate diatoms are elongated ovals that have longitudinal symmetry. Diatoms can be solitary or united in colonies of various kinds. Cells in colonies may be linked by a variety of siliceous structures, mucus pads, tubes, or stalks, and/or threads of chitin. Diatoms of the Pseudo-nitzschia genus are pelagic, which means they are found in open water as opposed to being associated with the seafloor (benthic). They are found in the photic zone (0-200 m) of the water column and are most abundant in the upper 0-5 meters of water where sunlight is abundant. Pseudo-nitzschia cells are pennate and form chains which can be 30-40 cells in length. PN species are found all over the world, in a variety of temperature and salinity ranges. Blooms of PN tend to occur in coastal waters and are common along the coast of North America. Dr. Vera Trainer (NOAA, Northwest Fisheries Science Center) and her research group are investigating the basic biology and toxicity of Pseudo-nitzschia. At each station the team collects water samples from various depths to use for whole PN counts, enumeration of PN size classes, and for species identification using scanning electron microscopy. A hand-held plankton net is also towed at each station to collect plankton from the surface water. The plankton net has a 20-µm mesh which acts as a filter in the water and retains organisms greater than the mesh size. The scientists view the sample under a microscope and look for the presence or absence of PN in the plankton sample as well as relative abundance of PN compared to other species. There are many species of the PN genus and the Trainer research group focuses on learning why certain species of PN contain higher levels of toxin. The toxin produced by PN is a neurotoxin called domoic acid. Read tomorrow to learn more about domoic acid! For more information about HABs and Pseudo-nitzschia check out these websites:
Day 6 - Continued sampling on the survey grid N 47º 06'.43 Yesterday we finished sampling the Grays Harbor (GH) transect sampling line and steamed close to shore to collect water for an experiment. Today we are sampling along the Copalis Beach (CB) transect near Cape Elizabeth, Washington starting near the mouth of the Quinault River and proceeding offshore. At each station of the grid, we follow the same sampling protocol that I mentioned in yesterday's entry - including deploying a CTD-equipped rosette which has a series of Niskin bottle which collect water at a series of depths, a phytoplankton net tow, and Go-Flo water collection for trace metal analysis. The depth along our grid transects varies dramatically as we move from shallower coastal waters of only 30-60m to deeper waters offshore varying from 1200-2000 m in depth. Topic: Domoic Acid Toxicity Domoic acid is a relatively new phytoplankton toxin that was first detected on the west coast of the United States and Canada about 15 years ago. It is produced by diatoms of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia and was first found in red macro-algae in Japan. Domoic acid was consequently named after the Japanese word for seaweed which is 'domoi'. Domoic acid (DA) is a nerve poison, which means it affects the nerves and brain. DA is specifically an excitatory amino acid which binds to glutamate receptors in the hippocampus, causing cell death and tissue degeneration in that region of the brain. DA can affect organisms on many levels of the food chain. Organisms that feed on toxic Pseudo-nitzschia (PN) species, or on species that have eaten toxic PN species, can accumulate DA in their tissues. However the toxic effects of domoic acid vary accordingly to the position of the organism on the marine trophic food chain. For example, filter feeders such as clams, mussels, and scallops appear relatively unaffected by the toxin, whereas higher level trophic consumers such as planktivorous fish, birds, marine mammals and humans can be severely or marginally affected; it depends on the animal. Domoic acid causes amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) in mammals including humans. Some common symptoms of domoic acid poisoning in marine mammals, such as the California sea lion, include unbalance, head-weaving, muscle tremors, and seizures. In humans, ASP symptoms include gastrointestinal problems within 24 hours of eating affected shellfish and neurological symptoms such as headache, dizziness, confusion, disorientation, and loss of short-term memory within 48 hours. Mammals may suffer permanent brain damage. Domoic acid is not destroyed by cooking or freezing. In addition to studying basic biology/ecology of Pseudo-nitzschia species, Dr. Vera Trainer (NOAA - Northwest Fisheries Science Center) and her research team investigate the amount of DA present in certain species of the Pseudo-nitzschia genus. It appears that not all species of PN produce DA. Currently, four species of the PN genus on the West Coast are known to produce domoic acid. The Trainer group is interested in learning why only certain species of PN produce DA, what levels of DA are produced, and at what point in the growth cycle do cells produce and release DA into the seawater. To answer these questions the research group is sampling continuously and are conducting a variety of experiments. At each survey station, water is collected, using a CTD-equipped rosette with Niskin bottles, from 0, 5, and 10 m, and the amount of domoic acid present both in the water (dissolved DA) and in the cells (particulate DA) is determined. Concentrations of DA are measured by first filtering the samples and subsequently running sophisticated assays to determine both the presence and the relative concentration of DA in the samples. Plankton net tow samples containing PN are also collected for whole cell genetic assays which are used to determine which PN species are present, and to grow up unialgal cultures for use in growth experiments at sea and later ashore in the laboratory. Growth experiments measure the growth rate of PN species in an ideal environment with excess nutrients. The PN cells are grown for a series of days to weeks, and cells are sampled daily to determine the presence and concentration of DA. Knowing the ambient seawater concentration of DA is key to determining whether a bloom of PN can be considered toxic. Species identification using whole cell epiflourescent probes, toxicity assays, and growth experiments enable Dr. Trainer and her research group to determine the link between different concentrations of DA toxicity and species of Pseudo-nitzschia. As the Trainer group is able to identify toxic species and measure levels of toxicity, they can identify toxic blooms and predict toxicity based on species. Keep reading to learn more about the environmental factors that create bloom conditions and how scientists can manipulate factors to render a bloom toxic! To learn more about domoic acid:
Throughout the night, scientists finished sampling the Copalis Beach (CB) transect offshore and began the Kalaloch Beach (KB) transect from offshore toward the Washington coast. Today we will sample the entire Kalaloch Beach transect. The razor clam fishery at Kalaloch Beach is currently not open due to high concentrations of domoic acid. The Washington State Department of Health tests for high concentrations of domoic acid while the Department of Fish and Wildlife enforces closures. The razor clam fishery can not open when the concentration of domoic acid is higher than 20 µg/g (wet weight). After sampling the KB line, we are continuing our grid survey and will sample the La Push (LP) transect off Cape Johnson throughout the afternoon and evening. Topic: Photosynthesis and Primary Production Primary production is the amount of plant tissue built up by photosynthesis over time; the rate of this reaction is referred to as primary productivity. Phytoplankton are the major primary producers of the sea, converting inorganic materials such as nitrate and phosphate into new organic molecules such as lipids and proteins through the process of photosynthesis. Phytoplankton are thus classified as autotrophs, and since they utilize sunlight for their energy they are referred to as photoautotrophs. These organisms form the base of the marine food web. Remember the equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6CO2. For this reaction to proceed, both electromagnetic energy from the sun (visible light) and light-catching pigments are needed. The process of photosynthesis converts radiant energy to chemical energy and requires special photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a, b, c, and d plus accessory pigments, usually contained in the chloroplasts of algae. However, phytoplankton growth is affected by more than just the amount of light and nutrients. Temperature and salinity also must be considered. As with plants, phytoplankton require both macronutrients and micronutrients in order to photosynthesize and create new biomass (grow). The macronutrients that phytoplankton need include nitrogen and phosphorus. Some algae such as diatoms also require dissolved silicon (silicate). Micronutrients such as iron and copper also have been found to be very important for growth. Too much of some micronutrients (such as copper) can be inhibitory for growth, whereas too little will limit their growth as well. In general, the concentration of macronutrients found in deep seawater is high and becomes depleted with sustained phytoplankton growth in the surface waters. Micronutrients are also generally elevated in deep waters, but their surface concentrations are highly variable. In some cases, low concentrations of micronutrients will limit phytoplankton growth, despite elevated macronutrients. The physical and chemical characteristics of seawater change often, which impacts phytoplankton growth and reproduction. Dr. William Cochlan (Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University) and his research team study the characteristics of the water column (nutrients and light) which create the environmental conditions conducive to an algal bloom. The primary objective of the Cochlan group for ECOHAB-PNW is to examine the relationship between elevated concentrations of Pseudo-nitzschia and its toxin domoic acid in relation to concentrations of macro-nutrients in the water column and phytoplankton biomass. To characterize the water column and quantify phytoplankton biomass, the RTC research team collects water at each station using Niskin bottles (attached to an instrumented rosette) for both nutrient and chlorophyll analyses. Water samples are filtered to collect phytoplankton using different pore-sized filters. The 0.7-µm filter collects all the phytoplankton greater than 0.7µm in size, (which constitutes essentially all the natural phytoplankton community), whereas the 5-µm filter collects larger phytoplankton such as diatoms. Chlorophyll is then extracted from the phytoplankton using a solvent, and the concentration of chlorophyll per sample is determined using a fluorometer. Knowing the chlorophyll concentration enables scientists to estimate the biomass or the amount of cells in the water sample. Nutrients including nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, and silicate are determined using a sophisticated flow injection nutrient auto-analyzer. Ammonium concentrations are also determined onboard using a sensitive fluorometric method, while samples for urea concentration are collected and analyzed using a spectrophotometric technique. The scientists' goal is to analyze all these nutrients in near, real-time in order to optimize sampling strategies and more effectively design experiments to be conducted on the ECOHAB-PNW cruise. One of the fundamental objectives of the ECOHAB-PNW project is to determine the environmental parameters that create and sustain Pseudo-nitzschia blooms that produce domoic acid. Dr. Cochlan's group is instrumental in quantifying the environmental conditions, including light and nutrients, which sustain such blooms. Using sensitive isotopic methods (both radioactive and stable tracers) these researchers are then able to accurately estimate the productivity of resident phytoplankton and bacteria . It is vitally important to characterize the ecophysiology (ecology and physiology) of PN in order to predict where, when and if toxigenic PN blooms may occur, and the possible role of anthropogenic factors in bloom development. Read tomorrow to learn more about the importance of trace metals!
Day 8 - Continued survey sampling off Cape Alava, Washington N 48º 07'.96 It was windy and rainy last night as scientists continued to sample water along the La Push (LP) transect far west of Mt. Olympus (7,954ft). Afterwards we steamed to the offshore section of the Ozette Lake (OZ) transect and will continue to sample along this transect from offshore toward the shore near Cape Alava, Washington. Most of the survey grid is within the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary and some of the coast in the area consists of tribal lands as well as Olympic National Park land. Topic: Photosynthesis and micronutrients - a domoic acid connection In order for phytoplankton to photosynthesize and grow, they need both macronutrients and micronutrients. Of the principal nutrients in the sea that are required for phytoplankton growth, only a few may be in short supply. In general, the quantities of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulfate, and chloride are all in sufficient quantities for plant growth, as are dissolved concentrations of carbon dioxide. Some essential inorganic substances such as nitrate, phosphate, silicate, (all termed macronutrients) and trace elements such as iron, copper, and manganese (termed micronutrients) may be present in ambient seawater concentrations that are low enough to limit phytoplankton productivity. There may also be synergistic effects between essential nutrients needed for growth. For example, iron governs the ability of phytoplankton to utilize inorganic nitrogen substrates because iron (a metal) is needed in enzymes required for reduction of nitrate and nitrite to ammonium (thus we call these metal-containing enzymes metalloenzymes). The reduced nitrogen is then incorporated into amino acids and other macromolecules as part of phytoplankton growth (or, . that make up a large part of the phytoplankton biomass that feeds higher trophic levels.) The physical and chemical environment of seawater is not constant. Light, temperature and macro- and micronutrient concentrations all vary. Light and temperature vary both daily and seasonally, while nutrient levels vary for a variety of reasons such as surface circulation patterns, upwelling/downwelling patterns, and wind (aeolian) and riverine inputs. In order to understand the development of massive blooms of algae such as Pseudo-nitzschia, scientists must determine the factors that enable one species to either outcompete or grow alongside other species. Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, where there may be patterns of succession of species leading to a climax community structure, the planktonic ecosystem has no analogous climax structure. The marine environment changes rapidly and is not stable long enough to evolve this type of 'permanent' structure. The question then is, what factors enable one species to bloom over another at certain times? Most algal blooms tend to be monospecific, meaning one species dominates over other species for the bloom or flowering period. There is evidence that micronutrients might be a key factor in determining which species are best able to use the macronutrients present in seawater and thus create a bloom. Dr. Mark Wells (University of Maine) and his research team are investigating this mystery. To this end, they are studying the ecophysiology of PN in relation to micronutrients, specifically the trace metals - iron and copper. Both metals are found in very low concentrations dissolved in seawater, and they are important in nearly all metabolic processes, not just nutrient assimilation. Iron is particularly important in for synthesis of amino acids and chlorophyll, neutralizing reactive (harmful) oxygen species, and for the basic electron transport chain used in photosynthesis, in addition to a number of other metabolic processes. Dr. Wells as part of his ECOHAB discoveries has found that Pseudo-nitzschia has a unique way of interacting with iron. PN appears to produce domoic acid when it is stressed from low amounts of dissolved iron and copper in seawater. Domoic acid appears to help PN acquire (i.e., take-up) the metals they need for growth. Interestingly, the domoic acid structure is similar to glutamic acid which is also its method of toxicity. So in other words, this toxin is more than merely a toxin, but appears to have an important role in ensuring that this diatom is able to survive and even flourish in a micro-nutrient starved ocean. Scientists do not really know why harmful algal species produce toxins. The two major possibilities are that phytoplankton produce toxins to deter predators (i.e., to stop from being eaten), or that they produce an accidental toxin - a molecule that is useful to the organism, but toxic to other organisms, even humans. This latter suggestion may be the case for domoic acid, but we are still not certain . The Wells research group is asking the question whether trace metals such as dissolved iron and copper are important triggers for the success of PN, and in particular their tendency to make domoic acid. The primary objectives of the Wells research group are to collect seawater samples from the ECOHAB-PNW study area for trace metal analysis and to field-test a shipboard flow injection method for trace-metal analysis. Trace metal sampling and analyses are extremely difficult to do at sea because of the huge contamination problems. Remember we are on a big, sometimes rusting piece of iron (the ship) trying to collect seawater samples so that the scientists can measure minute concentrations of dissolved iron...a task that was impossible to do until fairly recently. Dr. Wells and his team use either a trace-metal clean FISH or special Go-Flo bottles. The FISH flies in the water at a depth of 5-10 m and can be flown continuously as the ship moves. The FISH must be towed from a boom off the ship, to ensure that the ship's metal hull itself does not contaminate the sample. Water is pumped up from depth to the ship through special tubing, to a trace-metal clean laboratory (the bubble room) for analysis. The other sampling technique uses a Go-Flo sampling bottle. This bottle collects discrete samples, and is a plastic container similar to a Niskin bottle that is sent down to any depth to collect a single water sample. By using both of these methods, the research team is able to provide onboard analysis of iron concentrations from throughout the water column; information which acts as a guide for designing deckboard incubation experiments where iron and copper concentrations are manipulated during physiological studies of PN and domoic acid production. Keep reading to learn what organisms feed on Pseudo-nitzschia!
Winds, cold rain, and rough seas continued last night as scientists finished sampling the Cape Flannery (CF) transect offshore and began the La Perouse Bank (L) transects. All the L transects (LA, LB, LC, and LD) are monitored by the Canadian Institute for Ocean Sciences in Sidney, B.C.. The La Perouse Bank is an important fishing ground off the west coast of Vancouver Island. Today we are sampling the LA transect from offshore toward the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca just between Cape Flannery, Washington and Vancouver Island, Canada. Topic: Phytoplankton ecology - Pseudo-nitzschia population dynamics Phytoplankton are important primary producers. They are autotrophs, meaning they synthesize their own organic material. Heterotrophs are organisms that must eat other things to gain energy. Although most phytoplankton are microscopic, they are an important food source for grazers (heterotrophic organisms that feed on other organisms). Phytoplankton grazers can be separated into two categories based on their size. Microzooplankton are animal-like plankton (20-200µm) such as protists, while macrozooplankton include larger plankton (2-20cm) such as copepods and amphipods (microscopic crustaceans). The trophic relationship between primary producers and their small herbivorous grazers (mostly zooplankton) can be complex. Intensive grazing can decrease the standing crop (the biomass of organisms present per unit volume or per unit area at a given time) even if the phytoplankton are rapidly growing (think of it like the well-fertilized lawns of golf courses that are continuously mowed, so they appear never to grow). Grazing rates often adjust to the magnitude of primary production to establish a balance between producer and consumer populations. For a bloom of Pseudo-nitzschia to occur, not only do the physical and chemical conditions have to be just right (enough sunlight and macro- and micronutrients), but PN must outcompete other phytoplankton for nutrients and overcome grazing pressure. If PN are eaten by grazers at the same rate as they grow and reproduce, there is no bloom. In order to understand the population ecology of a harmful algal bloom, one must understand the trophic structure of the phytoplankton community. Dr. Evelyn Lessard (University of Washington) and her research group are investigating the role of grazers in Pseudo-nitzschia population dynamics and domoic acid production. They are specifically using dilution techniques to experimentally alter the grazing rate and nutrient recycling to determine the effects of grazers on the net growth rate of the whole and size-fractionated phytoplankton community, specific species, groups of phytoplankton, and the production of dissolved and particulate domoic acid. These experiments provide in situ growth rates of PN compared to other phytoplankton species. The team also uses the FlowCAM, an imaging flow cytometer onboard the ship to determine the abundance and species composition of natural phytoplankton communities. This special device allows for quick quantitative assessment of both PN abundance as well as phytoplankton and microzooplankton community structure at the surface and at depth. Pseudo-nitzschia species don't easily fit into conventional plankton size categories (picoplankton, 0.2 - 2.0 µm, nanoplankton, 2.0 - 20µm, and microplankton, 20-200 µm) because they are very long (>40µm), but very thin (2-10 µm). Because they are long and skinny, they have a high surface area to body mass ratio. Diatoms such as PN are often harder to feed on than other phytoplankton groups due to their silica frustule and their shape . The primary grazers of PN appear to be microzooplankton. The Lessard group studies the vertical profiles of planktonic assemblages in the sampling area by using microscopy and the FlowCAM. Water is collected at various depths with Niskin bottles and is filtered into size classes. Then much time is spent using epifluorescence microscopy to identify the species of phytoplankton in the community. The Lessard team also works with the Trainer group to determine the importance of biotic versus abiotic factors in the degradation of dissolved domoic acid in seawater. In nature, phytoplankton populations do not grow unchecked with unlimited growth rates. Their sizes are controlled by their tolerance limits to critical environmental factors including predators or by the availability of substances for which they have a need for sustained growth. Important limiting factors for phytoplankton biomass accumulation are grazing by herbivores and the availability of light and nutrients. The principal investigators in the ECOHAB-PNW project work together to learn the limiting factors for PN blooms. The Lessard research group focuses on the biotic grazing pressures on PN, while the Cochlan and Wells groups (see days 7 & 8 reports) investigate abiotic factors (such as macro- and micro-nutrients) that limit PN growth. Both "bottom-up" and "top-down" controls on PN abundance in the sea are covered by this collaborative ECOHAB project.
Day 10 - Sampling the La Perouse Bank N 48º 16'.64 Throughout the night we finished sampling the LA (La Perouse A) transect. This morning we arrived at the mouth of the Strait of Juan de Fuca where the ECOHAB-PNW project has a moored buoy stationed seasonally from May - October. We collected samples using the CTD-equipped rosette which has a series of Niskin water sampling bottles attached to it. The CTD itself has multiple sensors on it which measure conductivity (a measure of salinity), temperature, depth (using pressure), PAR (the amount of photosynthetically active radiation), chlorophyll fluorescence (an approximate measure of phytoplankton biomass), dissolved oxygen, and nitrate. By sampling in the same location as the moored buoy, we can ensure that the buoy sensors are accurate by cross-checking the buoy data with the data collected using the CTD. Today we are going to sample the entire LAB transect from nearshore by Carmanah Point, on Vancouver Island, British Columbia to further offshore. All the L transects start close to the coast of Canada and run about 60-70 miles offshore. Topic: Pseudo-nitzschia in the food web - domoic acid impacts Pseudo-nitzschia (PN) species, or species that have eaten toxic PN species, can accumulate domoic acid (DA) in their tissues. (Review Day 6 entry for more details about DA toxicity). The toxic affects of DA vary for different organisms in the marine food web, as well as within organisms themselves. DA can become concentrated as it travels up the food chain through a process called bioaccumulation. Domoic acid (DA) poisoning was first recognized during an outbreak on Prince Edward Island, Canada in 1987 where the first human fatalities and serious illnesses were recorded. Although DA has been measured in both the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast, known toxic events have only been documented in the scientific literature on the U.S. West Coast. DA was implicated in the illness and death of brown pelicans and Brandt's cormorants in Monterey Bay, California in 1991 and soon following the toxic bloom, levels of DA above the regulatory limit of 20 µg/g shellfish tissue were found in razor clams and Dungeness crabs on the Washington coast. Washington State beach closures to recreational and commercial shellfish harvesting after this event resulted in millions of dollars of lost revenue to local fishing communities. (Source: ECOHAB-PNW website) In 1998, impacts of DA on the health of marine life and to the fisheries economy were documented in several regions along the West Coast. In particular, California sea lions in central California were severely affected by DA poisoning. High toxin levels were found in razor clams in Oregon and Washington and beaches were closed for over a year. In this same year, the commercial Dungeness crab industry lost half of their income due to harvest closures. (Source: ECOHAB-PNW website) Several years later, dead and dying marine birds were found along the Monterey Bay coast with high levels of DA. Scientists found that the birds had been eating anchovies from the Bay. Anchovy gut contents showed that the fish had eaten PN with toxic levels of DA. (Source: Oregon State University "Domoic Acid and Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning") In 2002, more than 500 sick California sea lions came ashore in Southern California. Marine mammal scientists linked the strandings to DA poisoning. This summer (2006), the Marine Mammal Center reported DA poisoning as the suspected cause of death in over a hundred sea lions. The sea lions appear to be feeding on anchovies and sardines, both fish that are planktivorous filter feeders (fish that filter the water for plankton using their gill rakers). In the last few years, researchers appear to be finding increasing numbers of marine mammals showing the effects of DA poisoning. (Source: Marine Mammal Center) Researchers from NOAA, Northwest Fisheries Science Center are investigating the dynamics and effects of DA transfer in the marine food web. Specifically, they are studying DA in copepods (macrozooplankton) and planktivorous anchovies. Dr. Stephanie Moore and Dr. Evelyn Lessard (both of the University of Washington) are working to determine whether copepods are vectors capable of transferring DA to higher trophic levels. Copepods may be feeding directly on toxigenic PN species or may be feeding on microzooplankton grazers that have eaten PN. For this study, a vertical plankton tow is used to sample water in the upper 100 m of the water column. The sample is then sorted by size into two categories: >850 µm (salps, krill) and 250-850 µm (copepods). Both size classes are then processed to determine concentrations of DA. Sub-samples are kept for identification of species. Dr. Kathi Lefebvre (NOAA Northwest Fisheries Science Center) and her research group are conducting fish exposure studies to determine the effects of dietary exposure to toxic PN on planktivorous anchovies. This requires live anchovies to be brought onboard the research vessel and exposing them to PN blooms collected from the ECOHAB-PNW sampling stations. A unique and exciting attribute of this study is that fish are exposed to concentrations of PN found naturally in the ocean rather than being staged in a laboratory. The goal of this study is to determine how the toxin is distributed and metabolized in different tissues of the fish. There are three main components to this study: DA toxicity in fish tissues, anchovy behavior, and eco-chemical conditions in the fish tanks. This experiment uses two large tanks each containing 100 fish. One tank is a control tank with filtered seawater that contains no phytoplankton at all and so the fish are not feeding. The other experimental tank contains seawater with natural phytoplankton assemblages and relatively high concentrations of toxic PN collected from ECOHAB-PNW stations. Every 12 hours the seawater is changed in the tanks. Three fish every 24 hours are collected from each tank (control and experimental) for dissections. Scientists remove the heart, brain, muscle, kidney, bile, and gall bladder to measure the concentration of DA in the various tissues. Daily behavioral observations are performed in which fish are filmed to note any indications of impairment due to DA toxicity. Seawater samples are monitored at the beginning and end of every 12 hours (before water in the tanks is changed) for concentrations of nutrients (including urea and ammonium), and dissolved and particulate DA. Cell counts are also being taken for whole phytoplankton assemblage studies including the abundance of PN. We know that anchovies are capable of transferring DA to other organisms higher in the foodweb such as pelicans and sea lions and therefore must accumulate toxin, but the anchovies themselves so far appear to be relatively resistant to the effects of DA. Scientists believe they may be either sequestering the toxin in certain tissues to protect other tissues, or they may be adding functional groups to the DA molecule which may make it less harmful to the fish. In either case, the anchovy demonstrates some level of DA resistance. What is this mechanism that provides anchovies with some level of resistance to DA, and why are marine birds and mammals that feed on the anchovies impacted so severely? The copepod and anchovy studies by NOAA and University of Washington researchers investigating DA toxin transfer through the marine food web are an important higher trophic level complement to the ecophysiological and physical investigations being conducted concurrently in the ECOHAB-PNW project. Read tomorrow to learn more about how ECOHAB-PNW research aids fisheries resource managers!
Day 11 - Continued sampling on the La Perouse Bank N 48º 30'.09 We continued our sampling throughout the night on the LB transect starting offshore. Scientists are working today in the cold rain to complete this transect, but this is the Pacific Northwest so such weather is not uncommon. As we approach station LB1 will we be close to shore between Nitinat Lake and Pachena Pt., on Vancouver Island, Canada. This is the furthest north we have been thus far during our oceanographic cruise. Topic: ECOHAB-PNW Research - early warning of domoic acid events Toxigenic blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia are a cause of concern for those living and fishing in the Pacific Northwest coast of the U.S. and southwestern Canada. These blooms can result in significant loss of revenue for fisheries in coastal communities, as well as cause public health concerns. Many trophic levels of the marine food web are impacted during a bloom, including zooplankton, planktivorous fish, shellfish, finfish, marine birds, marine mammals, and even humans. Some higher level trophic consumers such as marine birds and marine mammals are severely affected by domoic acid. Human consumers of toxic shellfish may become ill or even die from ASP (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning), but the only human fatalities to date in North America occured in the Canadian Maritime province of Prince Edward Island. Shellfish on the Pacific Northwest coast are of special concern, due to their consumption by humans. The Pacific razor clam is unique in that the clam can retain high concentrations of domoic acid for over a year without being negatively impacted itself. Razor clams seem to bind the toxin, but keep filter feeding PN from the water column and accumulating domoic acid during a toxigenic bloom. Because they bind the DA and retain it for so long, careful DA monitoring of the species must occur to protect the large number of recreational and tribal fishers. Razor clams are a huge part of coastal and tribal culture. The Quinault tribe even has a specific word meaning "clam hungry". Razor clams are a staple of their diet and an important part of tribal life. When ceremonial and sustenance digs aren't allowed, an important part of the native culture is lost. Coastal economies are very much tourist-based and razor clamming from Fall through Spring bring much needed revenue from the population centers out to the coast. When extended closures occur, small family-owned businesses literally close their doors and board up their windows permanently, and a traditional and family pastime is taken away from coastal society. Other shellfish such as clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops do not bind domoic acid. These organisms will filter this microalgae and release the toxin in the time span of a few days or weeks. However, these fisheries are still closely monitored .The Department of Health has placed a regulatory level of 20µg of DA per gram of shellfish weight as the amount of domoic acid that can be safely consumed before beaches are closed to shellfish harvesting. Dungeness crabs are detritivore/scavengers which may feed on particles or pieces of dead shellfish. These crabs can also accumulate the toxin. The crab can be eaten however during toxic conditions, if it is cleaned properly and the consumer is careful not to eat any of the viscera (internal organs). Blue mussels are often used as an indicator species for a toxigenic bloom. These filter feeders process food quickly, which means they are able to accumulate DA quickly during an event and when tested can indicate a current bloom. Scientists from ECOHAB-PNW have published much information about the physical oceanography of PN blooms moving to the coast, the biology of PN, variable toxicity of DA, macro- and micronutrients needed for blooms, and how phytoplankton community structure changes during a bloom. They have also been invaluable in creating new, and adapting existing methods, to measure many of the eco-chemical factors thought to promote or sustain toxic blooms of PN. From this research, new patterns and ideas are emerging regarding the seasonality, duration, and magnitude of toxigenic PN blooms, which will be eventually utilized by managers and scientists worldwide to help predict and control the impact of such diatom blooms. In 1999, academic, federal, tribal, and state managers and researchers in Washington State formed the Olympic Region Harmful Algal Bloom (ORHAB) partnership. The objectives of ORHAB were to investigate the origins of toxic algal blooms, monitor where and when the blooms occur, assess the environmental conditions conducive to blooms and toxification of intertidal shellfish, and to explore methods to reduce HAB impacts on humans and in the environment. The ORHAB program currently monitors seven locations on the Washington coast where razor clam harvesting occurs. The program monitors two times a week to measure total PN cell counts using light microscopy and measures DA in the seawater. Researchers can take samples from the field or even use a cellular toxicity test strip in the field to measure DA concentrations. This monitoring provides important data for resource managers who must decide when and where to open fisheries. This data provides them with early warning of DA accumulation by shellfish. The ECOHAB-PNW research provides valuable information to marine resource managers. Drifter studies tracking toxigenic PN blooms can be used to predict whether a toxic bloom will advect toward the coast. Computer modeling using physical, chemical, and ecological data collected at sea are being used to predict the magnitude and movement of blooms in the Pacific Northwest. The ECOHAB-PNW project maintains moored buoys during May-October in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Juan de Fuca Eddy, which can be used as an ocean observing system to follow, monitor and eventually predict bloom environmental conditions. One of the ultimate goals is to develop a U.S. West Coast HAB-forecaster using the scientific information gained from ECOHAB-PNW. Effective HAB forecasting will likely need an integrated suite of sensors from both moored buoys and satellites. The buoys would measure ocean water properties such as temperature, salinity, light, macro- and micronutrients, currents, wind, PN cell number counts, and domoic acid concentrations, all of which could add real-time data to shore-based laboratory testing and monitoring. New and emerging technologies may allow in-situ detection of phytoplankton at the species level, improved detection of phytoplankton biomass, measurement of macro- and micronutrient concentrations, and domoic acid (and other toxins) concentrations. The relationship between ECOHAB-PNW research scientists and managers of coastal resources in the Pacific Northwest is unique. Anthony Odell is the coastal sampling coordinator and data manager of ORHAB and also participates in mooring servicing, drifter recovery, and yearly research cruises with ECOHAB-PNW. He acts as a real-time bridge between cutting-edge research at sea and integrating this research into monitoring programs that affect the culture, economics, and public health in coastal communities. Collaborative research efforts such as ECOHAB-PNW provide real results which help guide management of coastal resources.
Yesterday evening we finished sampling the LB transect and steamed back offshore during the night. We woke to rough seas and pods of Pacific white-sided dolphins and Dall's porpoises swimming about in the waves about the ship. Today we are sampling along the LBC transect from offshore to onshore toward Cape Beale. After finishing the transect we are going to steam to Barkley Sound on Vancouver Island Canada, where we hope to find a bloom of Pseudo-nitzschia cells to sample for deckboard experimentation. Topic: Experimental design - research at sea The scientific method is a circular process designed to investigate phenomena while suggesting testable explanations for those phenomena. Observations and data collection often lead to complex questions, which can only be answered by careful experimentation. The ECOHAB-PNW grid survey sampling provides much data about the physical, ecological, and chemical conditions conducive to blooms of toxigenic PN. This information can then be used to design experiments on board the research vessel to learn more about the specific processes of PN growth and DA toxicity. In addition to the survey sampling conducted on the ECOHAB-PNW research cruises, a suite of 'grow-out' experiments are conducted on board the aft deck of the vessel. Dr. William Cochlan (Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University) and Dr. Mark Wells (University of Maine), along with Dr. Charlie Trick (University of Western Ontario) and their respective research teams, offer their expertise to the common research goal of PN growth experiments. These experiments are the heart and soul of finding answers to the perplexing questions of why PN produces DA, and what environmental conditions in the field initiate or sustain blooms of toxigenic PN? The purpose of the growth experiments, (or incubation experiments), is to elucidate the factors that influence the initiation, formation, and/or maintenance of PN blooms and DA concentrations (cellular or extra cellular). There are two main types of 'grow-out' experiments where scientists are able to manipulate the amount and types of macro- and micro-nutrients (such as trace metals), add chemical chelators, and alter other environmental factors such as amount of light, temperature, or salinity. Scientists create different treatments and are able to measure biomass formation, nutrient drawdown, domoic acid production (dissolved and particulate), community structure changes, bacterial and phytoplankton productivity, and photosynthetic efficiency and capacity. The grow-out experiments utilize two types of culture systems: batch mode culturing and continuous culturing. Batch cultures are enclosed bottle experiments where a community of phytoplankton, (in this case including PN cells) are placed in an incubation bottle which acts as a closed ecosystem. In batch cultures, the experimenter decides the treatment and at the beginning of the experiment, places natural seawater with phytoplankton into the bottle and adds an addition (the treatment may be additional nutrients, trace metals, etc,) at a certain concentration. The bottle is then closed and allowed to incubate for a certain period of time with temperature and light levels mimicking those of the natural system. At the end of the experiment (12 hours - few days), the experimenter analyzes the change in the ecosystem (bottle) from the beginning of the experiment to the end by again measuring biomass formation, nutrient drawdown, domoic acid production (dissolved and particulate), community structure changes, bacterial and phytoplankton productivity, and photosynthetic efficiency and capacity. Subsamples from the batches may also be taken on an hourly - daily time period for more in-depth analysis of changes over time. In continuous culture experiments, a natural phytoplankton community collected from the sea is placed into an incubation bottle which acts as an ecosystem. This bottle is special however, with a small inflow and outflow tubes. The inflow and outflow tubes enable the experimenter to make an addition (treatment may be nutrients, trace metals etc.) continuously over time, rather than only once such as in the beginning of a batch culture. The treatment may be added or changed over a period of time by having small inflow tubes that flow directly into the ecosystem bottles. The bottles also have outflow tubes, which permits continuous flow over the entire period of the experiment (what goes in must come out), and scientists are able to take subsamples whenever they wish from the treatments to measure biomass, nutrient drawdown, domoic acid production, etc. Flow rates are kept constant for bottles and monitored closely. The bottles are completely closed except for the inflow and outflow tubes. The bottles are kept in an incubator which controls mixing, light, and temperature. These experiments can run for a longer period of time than batch cultures, due to the possibility of continuous additions over time. By using continuous culture methods, scientists are able to look at the change in phytoplankton community structure over time, as well as measure the entire suite of characteristics important when studying PN blooms. ECOHAB-PNW is the first series of research cruises to use a sophisticated continuous culture incubator on the deck of a research vessel with precision-controlled flow rates. By using both batch experiments and continuous culture experiments at sea with natural seawater and phytoplankton community assemblages, scientists are breaking new ground. Using continuous cultures at sea is new to the field of oceanography, and only two exist in the World. By conducting complex growth experiments, in addition to survey sampling, and directed bloom sampling at sea, ECOHAB-PNW researchers have and are continuing to answer complex questions about PN physiology, domoic acid production, and the chemical factors that are conducive to PN blooms in nature.
Day 13 - Barkley Sound to Neah Bay transit N 48º 22'.43 Last night we sampled water from Barkley Sound near Cape Beale, Vancouver Island, Canada. Scientists were hoping to find and collect water with a high PN cell count to use for onboard incubation experiments. After sampling and finding very low counts, the vessel transited toward Neah Bay, Washington. Neah Bay is a beautiful, isolated Makah village, the most northwest point in the contiguous United States. The Makah community is unique and is one of the more traditional tribes on the Washington coast. Traditionally fishermen and whalers, these ancient people have a strong connection to the sea around them. We anchored in Neah Bay to pick up a two-person film crew, to exchange a few members of the science team, and to pick up the new Teacher-at-Sea for the second leg, Denis Costello. I was originally going to disembark today, but have been asked by the principal investigators of the ECOHAB project to stay aboard a few days longer and participate in the filming of two educational videos. After we leave Neah Bay this evening, we are headed to continue sampling the Strait of Juan de Fuca in search of PN for use in deckboard experiments. Topic: Educational outreach - teaching others about research at sea Educational outreach, teaching others outside of the professional science realm, is key to the dissemination of information from scientists to the public. Much of the information which the public reads is processed through the media. Research scientists are able to work with the public face to face and transfer information through workshops (teacher and public), educational seminars, open houses, and in a variety of other settings. This outreach is important for scientists to relay new and exciting information to the public. The ECOHAB-PNW project has many educational outreach components. The first place people often look for information in our tech-friendly world is the internet. ECOHAB-PNW has a great website with information for the researchers themselves, as well as specifically designed to educate others about the project. Sheryl Day (NOAA, Northwest Fisheries Science Center/ITS) maintains and updates the ECOHAB-PNW website and also designed the logo. Sheryl has participated in four ECOHAB-PNW cruises and is an active member of the science team. The project website contains a wealth of information about the ECOHAB-PNW program including background information, a description of the principal investigators, funding support, cruise information, mooring buoy reports, modeling, and outreach. This website is utilized by universities, NOAA, resource managers, teachers, students, and other people who are generally interested in learning more about harmful algal blooms. This website, originally designed to be a place where the investigators shared information, has become an important outreach tool which tells the ECOHAB-PNW story. Visual Media is another avenue that ECOHAB-PNW scientists are using to educate the public. Lauren Kuehne, a NOAA Hollings Scholar and undergraduate student at Evergreen College, is working with ECOHAB-PNW scientists to produce two short films educating the public about the purpose of ECOHAB-PNW and about the collaborative efforts of ocean science and the field of modern oceanography. One film is designed to serve as mini-update of research findings for state legislators and congress. The second film is designed to target high school students and the public to provide a realistic portrayal of scientific research at sea. The film will provide a resource for educators on current field sampling techniques, as well as document and emphasize the need for collaboration in the sciences. The principal investigators of ECOHAB-PNW are extremely supportive of the film projects and are excited to use this media to educate others about research at sea. The third avenue of outreach that the ECOHAB-PNW project supports is the Teacher-at -Sea program. The mission of the NOAA Teacher-at-Sea program is to give teachers a clearer insight into oceanography and foster an interdisciplinary educational experience that provides a unique environment for learning and teaching. Dr. William Cochlan (Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, San Francisco State University), Dr. Mark Wells (University of Maine), and Dr. Vera Trainer (NOAA, Northwest Fisheries Science Center) sought and provided financial support to host a Teacher-at-Sea on the ECOHAB-PNW cruises the last three years. These principal investigators feel this is an effective way to reach a large number of students and teach them about the exciting, and interdisciplinary field of oceanography. With a wife and a sister both working as teachers in California and British Columbia, Dr. Cochlan specifically understands that for teachers to teach cutting-edge science in the classroom in a dynamic fashion, teachers need the opportunity to learn this information from the experts themselves. The Teacher-at-Sea onboard the research cruise communicates the complex science and unique collaboration of the ECOHAB-PNW project to students, by posting a daily science journal, participating in research in the laboratory and on deck, and answering questions from teachers and students. By supporting teachers, scientists can reach a large audience and inform them of the true, dynamic nature of science, rather than the static version of science in textbooks or the Hollywood version often portrayed in the media. Our next generation of voters, tax-payers, and possible scientists needs to know the importance of science in our lives. On a personal note, I would like to thank the ECOHAB-PNW principal investigators for showing their incredible support and enthusiasm for the Teacher-at-Sea program. Words truly cannot express the wealth of knowledge that I have gained through this experience. Each scientist spent hours describing their research in detail, including methods /technology, and answering questions. I especially want to thank Dr. William Cochlan who envelopes the Teacher-at-Sea into his research team each cruise and edits journal entries nightly. I have learned much from the entire ECOHAB-PNW science team and crew on this journey and try my best to give back to the science community, both in my classroom and through educational outreach. Through their extensive outreach efforts, ECOHAB-PNW scientists are sincerely dedicated to teaching the public about their work to discover and understand the factors that produce and transport toxigenic harmful algal blooms to the coast.
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Christine Muir is a teacher at Woodside Priory School (San Mateo County) in Portola Valley, CA. She currently teaches biology, chemistry, and marine science. Christine moved last year from the east coast where she has lived and worked in many states studying and teaching marine science. She is excited to learn more about coastal oceanography in the Pacific on this cruise.
