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Teacher at Sea 2006, Second Leg - Denis Costello
Denis holds a MA in Education Administration from California State University, Dominguez Hills and a BA in Biological Sciences from the University of Southern California. Outside of teaching, Denis enjoys baseball and SCUBA diving and resides in Long Beach California with his wife Megan. Day 14 - Looking for Pseudo-nitzschia along the coast 48º 22.43' N After leaving Neah Bay, Washington scientists began sampling the Strait of Juan de Fuca in search of water with Pseudo-nitzschia cells. Scientists hoped to find and sample regions with PN cells suitable for use in growth experiments onboard the vessel. After finding few PN cells, scientists decided to transit south along the coast of Washington to sample along the La Push transect off Cape Johnson, Washington. After collecting water from this station, the science team was excited to find an abundance of PN cells for use in experimentations. Today, members of the science team are making time to conduct interviews, discuss science, and demonstrate the tools and technology used in oceanography to the film crew. Topic: Education at sea - filming a documentary After experiencing some overcast days and rolling seas, the crew was pleasantly surprised by clear skies and warm sunshine. The sea was placid and ideal for a day of filming that was to portray the collaborative effort of the research team. The film crew of Jennifer Maas and Tony Elias boarded the R/V Thompson during the personnel transfer from the previous day. A transplant to the Pacific Northwest, Jennifer runs the Seattle-based company Evil Bunny Films, which has been contracted for this documentary. With her filmmaking duties mainly focused on educational documentaries, Jennifer found this cruise to be an interesting topic to cover and was eager to join the team. Also a Seattle resident, Tony will serve as the cameraman and will assist Jennifer with the editing process. Spearheading the production is Lauren Kuehne (Evergreen College, WA) with assistance from our Teacher-at-Sea, Christine Muir (Woodside Priory School, Portola Valley, CA). Lauren and Christine have spent much of the cruise developing questions and a filming schedule. As Christine's replacement, I have been charged with providing the narration for the documentary. The filming consisted of questions directed to the principal investigators (PIs) about their roles in this research project. During the interviews, each PI detailed the function of their respective lab group and how their effort will corroborate the efforts of the other groups. A common thread revealed by each scientist is how the collaborative nature of the team serves as a stepping stone to a better understanding of the ecology and dynamics of Harmful Algal Blooms. Dr. William Cochlan (RTC/SFSU) explained that the teamwork approach is a reflection of the strength that the participants bring toward creating a clearer and multidisciplinary approach to meeting the project's objectives.
Day 15 - Monitoring the Eddy 48º 17.56' N Today we said goodbye to two more members of the ECOHAB-PNW team: Teacher-at-Sea Christine Muir (Woodside Priory School), Lauren Kuehne (Evergreen College) in addition to the film crew (Jennifer Maas and Tony Elias). I accompanied them back to shore via a rigid inflatable small craft, and returned back to the R/V Thompson to continue my Teacher-at-Sea duties. Now that the filming has ended, I will focus on maintaining the Teacher-at-Sea journal started by Christine since our departure from Seattle. Since Christine has laid down much of the science in her earlier entries, my aim will be to explain the instruments and techniques used by oceanographers, and how these results aid in fulfilling the objectives of this research study. Topic: Nuts about Nutrients - The Role of Macronutrient Analyses There are many important abiotic factors that determine how favorable the conditions might be for PN growth-especially within the Eddy. Monitoring the phytoplankton assemblage includes observations of PN response over time to changes in nutrient availability. Since a quick prognosis of local nutrient conditions may determine the next move in the cruise, analysis of water samples requires a quick response. Julian Herndon (RTC/SFSU) is the analyst in charge of the LACHAT 4-channel Flow Injection Nutrient Autoanalyzer. This instrument allows the researchers to very accurately and precisely quantify the concentration of the essential macronutrients Nitrate+Nitrite, Phosphate and Silicate in seawater. A sophisticated robotic auto-sampler and a high precision pump mix small amounts of specific reagents with seawater samples in a highly-controlled manner. As the chemicals in these reagents and the nutrients in the seawater samples mix inside coils of very thin plastic tubing, a chemical reaction takes place. The result is the formation of colored molecules that can be measured using spectrophotometric techniques. Essentially, a beam of light of a specific wavelength measures the development of color in the samples (some of the light is absorbed by the colored molecules and the reduction of light intensity is measured as a voltage signal). The intensity of the color development in the sample can then be compared to that of a known reference standard to obtain the exact concentration of the desired nutrient in the seawater being studied. Aside from the operator having the knowledge, training and experience to keep the LACHAT purring along, there are several indispensable requirements for the instrument to function properly and produce accurate and reliable results. The most important is access to ultra pure water to make reagents, reference standards and to use as a baseline against which all measurements are made. This water is produced on-board the research vessel in a fairly complex manner. First, seawater is converted into freshwater by the shipboard engineers using Reverse Osmosis. This water is used by the scientists and crew members for drinking, cooking and all other daily needs. However, this water still contains a high level of dissolved salts (positively and negatively charged ions). To remove most of these dissolved particles, the water is boiled in a still. As the water is converted into steam, the salts are left behind as crystals. Although this water is very clean (similar to distilled drinking water you might purchase in the grocery store for highly inflated prices), there are still many contaminants to be found. Some of these contaminants are the very nutrients that Julian is trying to measure on the nutrient autonalyzer. So a third and final step is required to rid the water of these last remaining contaminants. A water purification system that uses charged resins instead of filters, removes anything left behind by the previous two steps. This ultra pure water is so clean that it is unsafe to drink, as the water would enter into the cells in your body and burst them as it tries to reach osmotic balance with the salts trapped inside your cells. These specific nutrients are measured because of their importance to phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are very similar to the plants you keep in pots at home. The plants in your home require Nitrogen (in the form of Nitrate, Nitrite, Ammonium or Urea) to make amino acids, which are used as the building blocks for proteins which in turn make up the tissues of the plant (or the phytoplankton). Phosphate is required in several basic cellular functions, including making molecules for storing energy (ATP) and DNA. Silicate (essentially glass) is not generally needed by the plants in your garden, but diatoms - the type of phytoplankton we are most interested in during ECOHAB-PNW, use it to make complex and ornate frustules (like an exoskeleton). If any of these nutrients are in short supply, phytoplankton will not grow for very long. Typically, Julian runs about 150 samples a day. Each sample takes about two and a half minutes, so 150 samples would take approximately 6.5 hours. Some of the samples, however, have to be diluted because they are too concentrated to measure accurately, this may add several hours to a nutrient run. Additionally, time is required to calibrate the instrument with standards and to make all the reagents for the analysis every day. This consists of mixing a variety of acids, bases and other hazardous chemicals together on a rolling ship. Imagine trying to make steaming hot chocolate in the back of a truck while your buddy drives it around the school parking lot in erratic circles and over speed bumps as you try not to spill any, and you will get an idea of how difficult it is to make chemical solutions on a ship! Time is also needed for preparing the reference standards for calibrating the instrument, analyzing the data, and cleaning and maintaining the LACHAT in proper working order. All of this makes for very long days at sea for the nutrient chemist. The data is then disseminated to all the other scientists on board once approved by Dr. Cochlan so that they can use it to make decisions about how to conduct their experiments and generate 3D plots of nutrient distribution in the Eddy where the PN are found.
Day 16 - Return to the ECOHAB-PNW Grid Monday, 9/25/2006 48º 43.45' N The grid is a series of sampling lines that run perpendicular from land and are almost parallel to each other. Each line is designated with a two or three letter code that identifies with a near-shore landmark. Once sampling begins on a line, the vessel will follow the line like a track, stopping at each "station" allowing the science party to collect water for monitoring and experimental purposes. The plan for today was to sample along the two northernmost lines (LC and LD) off the coast of Vancouver Island. With the sun shining and calm seas, the R/V Thompson was able to steam from station to station in good time. During our transit along the LC line away from shore, our clear day turned into a foggy haze as we passed through an oceanic front. Sampling from this station (LC 8) revealed high amounts of PN at the surface and low nitrate concentration, which means that these particular PN have already spent their nutrient supply. There was no domoic acid present in these samples. This finding led the PIs to have a quick science meeting in the main lab to discuss what to do next. Topic: The Supporting Cast - The Research Associates On each research cruise, the principal investigators rely on their supporting cast: the research associates. Also known as research technicians and specialists (depending on their experience and level of expertise), research associates have many responsibilities. Aside from running the lab and carrying out experiments, they are also in charge of logistics for a cruise, in other words ensuring that all supplies, equipment and instruments are ready for the cruise. Like a manager in a store, they make sure that the day-to-day operations run smoothly and that all of the customers in the lab stay happy. As discussed in yesterday's entry, Julian Herndon (RTC/SFSU) is responsible for the macronutrient analyses. During a typical day at sea, the PIs come to Julian for updates on experimental results. The data collected by Julian may determine whether scientists should duplicate an experiment or need to re-sample a particular spot along the grid. If you were to think of the vessel being like a hospital, Julian would the nutrient "doctor" of the ECOHAB "hospital." There are times when the other "doctors" need immediate answers to determine the next course of action. One would think that this line of work would be stressful for Julian, but as an observer on this cruise, I can tell you that Julian remains calm and collected. During his "7 to midnight" day (0700 to 2400), Julian will process samples and collect data for the entire science party. In between analyses, he can be seen interacting with the students and researchers regarding current research. To keep the crew in high spirits, Julian offers his own unique blend of espresso from his coffee maker, which he fondly refers to as Café Nitrogen, a nod toward his work with nitrogen substrates. Suspended above Julian's work station is a multicolored hammock, something you would find in a tropical setting. A U.S. citizen, Julian spent most of his childhood growing up in Costa Rica and came to the U.S to do his undergraduate degree at USC where he first went to sea with Dr. Cochlan on a month-long Antarctica research cruise. After finishing his undergraduate degree at USC, he returned back to Costa Rica to volunteer for the National Park Service of Costa Rica on Cocos Island. After spending six weeks there, Julian's interest in oceanography flourished. He would eventually return to the U.S. and pursue his Masters degree at SFSU under the advisement of Dr. Cochlan. Since then, he works closely with Dr. Cochlan and his students on various research projects and travels to HAB conferences all over the world (he's heading to Japan immediately after this cruise). Peggy Hughes is a research specialist from the University of California, Santa Cruz working with Dr. Mark Wells. During the cruise, Peggy usually starts off her day with a "strong cup of coffee" before running experiments. Like Julian, she manages experiments and determines the best way to collect diatom cultures. Having previously worked in the legal field, Peggy has the patience needed during times of rigorous sample processing. Her love for the ocean began when she was an undergraduate student at West Virginia University. An English major, Peggy decided to enroll in some marine biology courses at marine stations and quickly fell in love with oceanographic research. After fifteen years in the legal field, she decided to return to school to earn her Masters degree at the University of Oregon's Institute of Marine Biology. Since 1996, Peggy has assisted in many research projects, including six ECOHAB cruises. Although Peggy is fueled by her love for science and the satisfaction of "solving parts of the puzzle," she also enjoys her time on land by tending to her horses. Mike Foy (University of Washington) is a jack-of-all trades. As a research scientist, Mike does it all. His primary responsibilities lie with the management of Dr. Evelyn Lessard's lab at the University. On a cruise, Mike performs dilution experiments to determine various important rate processes of the plankton community, particularly the community and species-specific phytoplankton growth rates, and the grazing rate of the microzooplankton consumers. At the completion of the experiments, he prepares slides for "epifluorescent microscopy" to identify and count the different types of phytoplankton to determine how they 'behaved' over the course of the experiment. Unlike other groups on the cruise, Mike's lab group is on standby for much of the time. When favorable conditions are present, Mike is likely to start an experiment at any time during the day. During lulls in between experiments, Mike uses his spare time reading a book on the fantail, listening to music or trying to catch a fish or two with his fishing rod. Born in Ohio, Mike spent most of his childhood days growing up in the Mid-West. Although landlocked, he was always intrigued by the ocean. Mike began snorkeling and diving at an early age and after taking oceanography courses at Florida State University, he decided to pursue a career in oceanography. After he and his wife moved to Seattle, Mike found out that his old grad school advisor was doing a sabbatical at UW. He thought it would be a good time to rekindle old relationships with some members he met while in college and while attending a seminar given by Dr. Lessard, found out that she had a position open for a research technician in her lab. Mike would eventually apply and receive the position which he has presently held for the past eleven years. Mike's adventures have led to a couple 1500 meter dives in the submersible Alvin. Since joining UW, he as also participated in projects in Alaska and Antarctica. In some cases, with many of the same participants in the ECOHAB-PNW project. Julian, Peggy and Mike are in consensus when is comes to the most challenging aspect of their job: missing their families. They can be away from home for as many as six weeks at a time, only to come home for a few days and leave again. Days at home can also mean hours in the lab extending research work that that was not finished in the field. They express the enjoyment of mentoring and helping the graduate students onboard. They recall at one time also being wet, cold, tired graduate students learning how to conduct oceanographic research. Their work ethic and camaraderie is what makes the ECOHAB-PNW cruise run smoothly-and in some ways recruits the newest and best future oceanographers.
Today marked the end of the general survey grid. The Hickey group (Univ. Washington) is very interested in following a series of "drifters" given that they are responsible for determining the physical transport paths of any toxic blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia. As described earlier by Christine Muir in her entries last week, drifters are used like tags. They track the surface waters of the Eddy, and via satellite tracking can relay information about the physical features of the surrounding seawater back to the R/V Thompson. Ph.D. candidate Amy MacFadyen (Univ. Washington) is constantly tracking the movement of these instruments (and hence the water masses they are following), and by using certain surface current models, is able to predict events such as upwelling, surface water movement and other physical factors that might affect the distribution of Pseudo-nitzschia and its expected trajectory. Topic: Building the Future - The Graduate Students Imagine having the opportunity to learn from the best research scientists around. Does traveling to Europe for conferences sound appealing? Or how about having the ability to design and run your own experiments? These are just a few of the perks of being a graduate student in the research lab groups associated with ECOHAB-PNW. These students come from all over the continental U.S. and Canada. On research cruises they can be found juggling multiple water samples, constantly jotting down data into their notebooks and analyzing their results well beyond midnight. When they are not doing that, they might be labeling sampling tubes for the following day's work. A common trait shared by these students, it is that they are intrinsically motivated. Maureen Auro (SFSU/RTC) is a third-year graduate student in Dr. William Cochlan's lab. For this cruise, she is in charge of data collection and experiments related to the effects of multiple nitrogen substrates (such as urea and ammonium) on PN toxicity. In addition, she determines phytoplankton and bacterial productivity using radioactive isotopes (Carbon-14 and H-3 labeled leucine) working long hours in the radioisotope lab van. Maureen's interest in the sea began before grad school, when she used to sail tall ships along the eastern seaboard. With a collection of sea shanties, a knack for knot-tying and a deep respect for the seafaring, Maureen is perhaps the saltiest researcher here. Growing up in Garden City New York, Maureen dreamed of making the U.S. Women's soccer team. Presently, she is pursuing a Masters degree in Marine Biology and hopes to eventually obtain her Ph.D., although she wouldn't mind also working as a research technician on a research ship for awhile. The long nights and rough weather don't deter Maureen because "the incredible amount of data collected" can be very satisfying. Maureen credits her most recent successful research experiment to her mentor Dr. Cochlan. As a member of Dr. Cochlan's "well-oiled machine," Maureen feels supported academically and personally. Getting to where she is at required a lot of hard work and making the right connections. Tom Connolly (Univ. Washington) will typically spend more than 12 hours plotting data for the drifters. A Stanford graduate, Tom stresses the need for grad students to get to know their professors, their respective programs, and to take advantage of opportunity when it arises. After graduating from Stanford, Tom completed a summer fellowship at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He hopes to eventually obtain his Ph.D. and then work as a Post Doc in Ireland. Tom is working under the guidance of a highly experienced physical oceanographer, ECOHAB-PNW Chief Scientist Barbara Hickey (Univ. Washington). Throughout the day, Dr. Hickey will confer with Tom about planning the next sampling plan based on his plotting and analysis. His catalog of data is systematically hand-written, photocopied and placed in a binder for the rest of the research party. His job is an important one because it keeps the rest of the researchers literally on the same page. When not discussing science, Tom and Dr. Hickey can be found discussing their mutual affection for kayaking. Hailing from the New York City, Tom has always wanted to live on the west coast. He was inspired to take more science after taking biology in high school. He recommends that prospective graduate students receive some laboratory experience prior to entering a graduate level program. Working alongside Tom is Amy MacFadyen, a Ph.D. candidate (Univ. Washington). Hailing from Nelson, British Columbia, she is a veteran having participated on portions of all six ECOHAB-PNW cruises. Although most of her work lies with plotting and using the ROMS model as a diagnostic tool to predict surface conditions in the Eddy, she also is in charge with the deployment and recovery of the drifters. Last summer she and Julian Herndon (RTC/SFSU) ventured via rigid inflatable into the shipping lanes of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to fix a broken light on a moored buoy. These students are just a few of the brightest, future ocean scientists on this cruise. They make working in a lab environment easy because they are so willing to learn and help the PIs.
With the grid sampling over, attention has turned toward the incubation experiments conducted on the aft deck of the R/V Thompson led by Drs. Wells (Univ. Maine), Cochlan (RTC/SFSU) and Trick (Univ. Western Ontario). Conducting experiments at sea provides these scientists the opportunity to mimic or alter the conditions that phytoplankton experience in the Pacific Northwest. One of the objectives of ECOHAB-PNW is to better understand why the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia produces domoic acid (DA). By conducting 'grow-out' (or batch-mode) experiments, the scientists are trying to determine both the physiological purpose of DA production, and the environmental factors that promote DA production. As noted on Day 8, iron may govern the ability of phytoplankton to utilize inorganic nitrogen substrates because iron (a trace metal) is needed in enzymes required for reduction of nitrate and nitrite to ammonium (thus we call these metal-containing enzymes metalloenzymes). For phytoplankton to take up the low ambient concentrations of iron available, the ECOHAB-PNW researchers have already demonstrated (and published last year) that copper is involved. Like trying to unlock many doors, the diatoms produce domoic acid in order to obtain copper which in turn allows the cells to take up iron. By manipulating the conditions normally found in seawater, scientists are learning more about how concentrations and the biological availability of these trace metals might govern the production of the toxin. Topic: Taking Us Where We Want to Go - The R/V Thompson Officers and Crew Some of the best and experienced mariners can be found aboard the R/V Thompson. They are away from home for months at a time and are witnesses to an assortment of science being performed by an array of different oceanographers from geological oceanographers to molecular biologists. Their exposure to the research at sea makes them experienced observers in an arena where their talents often dictate the success of a science mission. The success of any research project requires the close cooperation between the ship's crew and the science party. Whether a drifter is to be picked up, or the rosette sampler is to be deployed, the crew of the R/V Thompson works closely with the scientists to ensure that science can be conducted safely and efficiently. The Master of the R/V Thompson is Captain Phil Smith. Captain Smith began his seafaring career shortly after his discharge from the United States Marine Corps in 1970. His interest in going to sea developed while he was transported with his division from Okinawa, Japan to Da Nang, a major port city in Vietnam. As an Unlimited Master, he has worked on a variety of commercial transport and research vessels. His work has carried him to Alaska, Mexico, Panama, Chile, Fiji, Australia and the Galapagos Islands. He credits his crew as dedicated professional mariners that provide scientists a safe and stable platform to work from. John Wilson is the Chief Mate of the R/V Thompson. He directs the loading of equipment before the cruise and is usually involved in deck operations that require the deployment and recovery of science instruments (i.e. drifters, rosette sampler, tow fish). While at sea, most of the crew will work in four hour shifts to maintain peak mental fitness. Piloting a large research vessel requires experience and a good sense of judgment. These men and women do not fit the standard 9-5 mold, and their career choice is not well known by the general public. With the decline in the United States Merchant Marine, it has been harder to find employment on U.S. flag vessels, but graduates of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academies tend to have the most success obtaining careers at sea. However, working on a vessel such as the R/V Thompson isn't just all work. These seamen also must live aboard these large vessels, so when not on their watch, the crew can be found working out in the ship's gym, playing a game of ping-pong or relaxing in a salt water hot tub converted from a storage container designed by Jan Gawel, one of the ship's engineers. On any research cruise, a well-trained ship's crew is an integral part of a successful science mission. Through a good working relationship with the scientists, the officers and crew of the R/V Thompson ensure that the ECOHAB-PNW researchers have the opportunity to conduct clean and safe science. For more information on the R/V Thompson and her personnel, go to: http://thompson.ocean.washington.edu/
Day 19 - Under Pressure 48º 11.26' N Today was crunch time for experiments aboard the R/V Thompson. The scientists rotated from sampling their batch cultures to filtering seawater, processing their samples, running biomass, nutrient and toxin analyses and recording reams of data. Like a tag team on an assembly line, one graduate student would finish at the main lab's filtration manifolds only to be replaced by another waiting to process samples from a different experiment.. While these analyses were still underway, a final collaborative experiment on PN growth and grazing was being planned, logistically organized and set up, which required additional trace-metal (TM) clean water to be pumped from below the surface using the TM sampling fish. While today's overall sampling schedule was more subdued than previous days, the graduate students furiously broke down old experiments and logged time-dependent data. With less than a week left in the cruise, time is running out to collect data needed for their respective dissertation projects, and fulfillment of the scientific objectives of the ECOHAB-PNW mission. Topic: Recipe for Research - Funding and Planning ECOHAB-PNW Remember when your science teacher asked you to read a chapter in a book? Did it make you wonder how the material got there? Maybe you read about significant scientific discoveries or questions asked in newspapers and magazines. What you read is the result of the imagination and creativity of researchers wanting to learn more about their surroundings and how it works. Curiosity is the basis of all science. When something happens, or a pattern is observed, we gravitate toward wanting to learn more. For research scientists, the spark for an idea to explain it might come after a presentation, reading a published paper or after discussions with their colleagues. As scientists flesh out their ideas, or kindle that spark, they often perform a bit of background research to help frame their concepts. With more complex problems comes more complex ideas, and often scientists will collaborate and discuss their ideas with others having different expertise. All this helps scientists determine what direction their research should take them. The process of planning research is not unlike the scientific method that is discussed in the classroom. It starts with an important, but well-defined question from which a testable hypothesis can be developed. Like a fork in the road, a testable hypothesis should yield either a 'yes or no' answer. The results of the initial hypothesis testing may then develop into more questions that need to be tested during the course of a research study. Observations and data don't necessarily reveal immediate answers, rather they may allow researchers to rule out certain conditions and offer a new direction in the project to be pursued. During the infancy of oceanography, often research was basically linear. Think back to the famous H.M.S. Challenger expedition, which among other things set out to prove whether marine life existed below a depth of 549 meters 'the Azoic Hypothesis'. By conducting net tows to deep depths the onboard scientists (or naturalists as they were then called) were able to determine a definitive yes or no answer to that question. Of course we all know today, that lack of light and high pressure at depth does not prevent some forms of marine life to thrive at deep depths, but just 130 years ago this was still a mystery. Present day oceanographic research is focused on questions of much greater complexity. As a result, it is common for biological oceanography or marine biology research projects to include several principal investigators - each experts in their own discipline of oceanography or the biological sciences. By bringing their own specific knowledge and expertise to the project's questions, the ECOHAB-PNW investigators can piece together many parts of the big picture and determine what environmental factors trigger domoic acid production in the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia and determine how physical factors are involved in transporting these toxic cells to the coast. Today, before a project such as ECOHAB-PNW can solve such questions, a potential research team of PIs submits a formal proposal outlining their hypotheses, how they will be tested, the methodology that will be followed, and the budgets required to fund the research. The writing process make take as little time as a few weeks or many months after which the proposal is submitted to a governmental funding agency for peer review. A number of scientific experts in the field will then review the proposed research project and provide a written summary of the proposal's strengths and weaknesses, and a relative grade (from Excellent- should be funded! ...all the way down to Poor - not worthy of funding - do not pass Go). These confidential reviews are submitted to a panel of experts (convened by the agency funding the research) that then reviews the reviews, assigns points for each proposal, and eventually ranks them. After a careful final deliberation, votes are cast and a decision is made on which proposals will be funded. The proposal's authors are then notified of the panel decision 3-6 months (or more) after the initial submission via e-mail or surface mail. Depending of the decision the authors either cheer or cry..much like finals. The funding for ECOHAB-PNW is provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation and National Oceanographic Atmospheric Agency (NOAA). Congress decides how money is made available to NSF and NOAA for distribution toward research. Sometimes a situation might arise that the government will take particular notice-such as the case of harmful algal blooms and their apparent increase in coastal waters. This led to development of a program devoted to providing funding for research related to a greater understanding of the Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (ECOHAB) so even if there's a strong scientific question needing to be addressed, there are many steps that must be followed and careful scrutiny (and often multiple submissions) before a multi-million dollar project such as ECOHAB-PNW is funded and the science begins.
Today scientists re-sampled seawater at multiple depths along a mini-grid to refine their findings and gain additional data to determine how conditions have changed since last occupying these stations. By using the rosette sampler, they obtained more seawater for determining depth profiles of phytoplankton biomass (chlorophyll) and macronutrients, together with the necessary physical measurements. With so many experiments being conducted simultaneously, there was a jam at the filtration rigs as samples continue to be processed. Lisa Pickell and Kathy Hardy (both from Univ. Maine) filtered ninety samples in one hour and fifteen minutes! The graduate students and research associates continued breaking down their experiments, harvesting cells, and spending most of their day entering data and backing up their files. At this point, they will not start any more new experiments. They are looking tired. Nutrient and toxin analyses continue to be run using manual and automated methodologies (described previously in this journal), and fluorometer readings continue through the night on filtered chlorophyll samples from the previous day's collection and extraction. By the end of today, chlorophyll profiles for the entire grid will have been completed and entered into the data base. Topic: The Workhorse of Scientific Sampling - The Instrumented Rosette Sampler Think back to the first truly oceanographic cruise dedicated to science - the H.M.S. Challenger cruise of December 1872 to May 1876, led by Sir Charles Wyville Thomson. An observer on this early research expedition might have seen scientists collecting water samples by lowering buckets by rope. Imagine how laborious and time-consuming this process would have been. What did they do with their samples? How did sampling take place during rough weather? Without computers, they had to be astute observers-careful to record their data, making sure that their written information was secure and accurate. Through advances in instrumentation, data and sample collection have become much more efficient. Oceanographers can now sample on a regular schedule, catalog their collections and disseminate their data with relative ease. The sampler of choice for most modern oceanic research cruises is the instrumented rosette sampler. The rosette is a series of Niskin (or alternative) sampling bottles attached to a circular metal frame that can be lowered into the water column by the ship's winch. The rosette on the R/V Thompson is equipped with twenty-four, 10-L Niskin bottles. Once in the water, the Niskin bottles can be remotely triggered from the ships lab to collect water samples at any depth. This process is a much safer and efficient way to collect seawater samples than the methods employed by early oceanographers. Attached to the rosette is the CTD. This electronic instrument is used to provide real-time diagnostic data on the conductivity, temperature and density of the water around the submerged rosette. The conductivity of seawater is used to determine salinity - the concentration of dissolved inorganic salts. Since conductivity increases with increased concentration of dissolved salts one can determine the sanity of samples by measuring conductivity. Along with salinity, temperature is another factor that determines the density of water. It is possible to have two separate masses of seawater with different combinations of salinity and temperature, but have the same density. Since denser water sinks, we would expect colder, saltier water to be in deeper water, and fresher, warmer water on the surface. We sometimes find dense water near the surface during upwelling-which occurs when prevailing northern winds drive surface waters away from the continent, allowing deep cold nutrient-rich water to surface. These events support phytoplankton growth and ultimately the rest of the food chain. Other instruments can be added to the rosette. A photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) sensor is used to measure light availability and its attenuation (decline) with depth. Light, of course, is necessary for photosynthesis by the autotrophic phytoplankton. Another instrument attached is the in situ fluorometer which measures the relative amount of chlorophyll in the water column. This data is used to determine the relative biomass distribution of phytoplankton, especially in the upper waters where phytoplankton must be in order to acquire light. Other sensors also can be added to measure the presence of nitrate ions and dissolved oxygen. Nitrate is a major macronutrient needed for phytoplankton sustenance. Like fertilizer used in a garden, available nitrogen can spark and uphold algal growth. Decreases in nitrate may indicate that local algal assemblages may have spent their resources, leaving little or nitrate for a future bloom in that locale. High oxygen concentrations at the surface might be the result of mixing at the air-water interface or a photosynthetic production by phytoplankton. Decreases in oxygen with increasing depth may result from a lack of photosynthetic organisms as expected with a decrease in light, or be the result of bacterial decomposition of dead organic material - a process that requires to oxygen. Too much decaying organic material and insufficient flushing of the waters can result in the creation of low oxygen or no oxygen (anoxic) zones, commonly referred to as 'dead zones'. During a sampling session, data is relayed into the ship's computer lab where the data it is put onto a server. As the rosette is lowered into the water, a marine technician and science party member determine the depths to trigger Niskin bottles. Using the sensors attached to the rosette, they are able to watch on a computer screen how temperature, salinity and other factors change in the water column. The amount of available light and fluorescence may determine the depths from which to "fire" a sample bottle. Outside the computer lab, a winch operator controls the rate at which the rosette is lowered and raised in the water. Science personnel are allowed to collect water from the Niskin bottle once the rosette is recovered and secured on deck. Shortly after the recovery, data from the CTD and other instruments are made available to other members of the scientific party. With each successive rosette cast, data is compiled to create a larger picture of what is happening in the sampling areas. To locate all of the pieces, the data is saved into "cast numbers" which coordinate the stations on the ECOHAB-PNW survey grid. With the number and speed at which sampling takes place, it is imperative that a system such as the survey grid is used and data carefully recorded. Without the instrumented rosette sampler, the amount of data acquired during a typical three-week ECOHAB cruise would probably approach that of the 3.5 years of the H.M.S. Challenger. We expect that by the end of our journey to have performed about 220 CTD casts, acquiring enough data that would have made Sir Charles Wyville Thomson, one of the pioneers of oceanography, very proud of the advances since the Challenger cruise.
The day began with two, deep water CTD casts to 1,000 meters. Styrofoam cups brought onboard by the teachers-at-sea: Christine Muir (Woodside Priory School, Portola Valley CA) and Denis Costello (North High School, Torrance CA) were attached to the rosette and lowered away. Somewhat of a novelty on research cruises, the styrofoam cups will shrink at depth due to the increased hydrostatic pressure, and will be used in their classes to illustrate density and pressure as a function of depth. A relatively slow day for CTD sampling, most lab groups were content to continue breaking down their experiments, compile data, and some scientists even enjoyed the luxury of an afternoon nap. After dinner, Dr. Mark Wells and Kathy Hardy (both of Univ. Maine) boarded the R/V Thompson's small boat to sample water for trace metals (specifically iron) away from any possible contamination from the ship's hull or discharges. Since the ship is made of iron, taking a sample away from the vessel will provide a true concentration of available iron in the water column. Topic: The FlowCAM - Looking for Autotrophic Microorganisms - Phytoplankton Think back to when you were a kid swimming at the beach. Did you ever accidentally take in a mouthful of seawater? Put aside that salty taste in your head for just one minute and consider what else you may have swallowed. Chances are that you devoured a bunch of microzooplankton-tiny, nearly naked to the eye, floating heterotrophic organisms that eat phytoplankton. It might not be an appetizing thought, but these microzooplankton are tasty to the invertebrates and small fish that make up the higher trophic levels of marine food pyramids. These tiny critters continue the transfer of energy to higher order consumers. As intermediaries, they serve as grazers consuming photosynthetic autotrophs (i.e., phototrophs) such as the toxigenic diatoms belonging to genus Pseudo-nitzschia. As primary grazers of PN, microzooplankton can alter the community diatom population during sampling. To consider the effect that they have on relative phytoplankton biomass, Dr. Evelyn Lessard (Univ. Washington) employs an instrument used to identify various species of microplankton (both autotrophs and heterotrophs). Like a security camera, the FlowCAM takes a snapshot of every plankter that passes by the instrument's high resolution video camera, capturing them for future study. This instrument will allow Dr. Lessard to study the community assemblage of PN and other phytoplankton and grazers. Before the FlowCAM was introduced to oceanography, microplankton ecologists relied on traditional techniques to identify species of PN. The use of plankton nets was a very crude way to capture PN samples and did not yield quantitative results. The problem lie in the pores of the net allowed the long and linear diatoms to escape. This was mainly due to the selective porosity of the net's mesh which allowed PN to slip through. The FlowCAM operates like a toll booth. A ten milliliter sample of seawater is poured into a vial and is slowly injected through a flattened glass chamber. An electronic pump is used to maintain a steady flow of one milliliter of sample per minute. As the sample passes into the chamber, a green laser will detect the presence of an object. If the object is an autotroph, is will fluoresce triggering a LED light to flash thus allowing the camera to take a picture. If the object is a heterotroph, it will scatter the laser resulting in the LED light flashing and the picture is taken. As the camera snaps away, the images are filed away in Dr. Lessard's computer. The sample then continues to pass through the FlowCAM's housing and eventually ends up in a waste container for disposal. Dr. Lessard can now choose to separate the pictures by object size, chlorophyll content for phytoplankton, or by another parameter she calls 'aspect'- a ratio of the object's width to its length. For a round object, the aspect would be 1. For an object that is long and linear we would expect an aspect of less than 1 (for PN, values close to 0.1). By setting this parameter, Dr. Lessard can simply select an area of a scattergram plot and view the images of objects of given aspect ratio. The images can then be viewed for PN or any other object in the community. There are some problems with using the FlowCAM. Using a precision instrument on a moving ship can cause the camera to lose its focus and air bubbles in the sample may result in blurred or indecipherable images. Samples in concentrations may need to be diluted, a time consuming process while on a research cruise. Even with these potential problems, its benefits far outweigh potential problems and yield about 80% accuracy. Thought it makes identification easier, the FlowCAM is not meant to replace the human eye. Ultimately, the FlowCAM provides a horizontal map to complement the other measures of ECOHAB-PNW.
Day 22 - The Columbia River Plume 47º 10.86' N The team decided to collect samples from the Columbia River plume today. With the opportunity to collect samples from this region of fresher water, Go-Flo depth profiles were conducted for nutrients and trace metal concentrations in order to characterize the chemical make-up of this less dense water. The Columbia River plume can have significant effects on the distribution of Pseudo nitzschia, and at times may act as a fresh water lens protecting the Washington coast from advection of toxic cells from further offshore. During the day, Teacher-at-Sea Denis Costello (North High School) was online fielding questions from his students, and the general public attending the annual open house (Discovery Day) being held at SFSU's Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, located in Marin County. Getting the word out to students and teachers on the various aspects of marine research is a significant component of the ECOHAB-PNW study. He continues to answer questions throughout the cruise. You can email a question to Denis by emailing dcostello@teacher.tusd.org. He will also answer emails after the cruise once he's ashore and back teaching in the more traditional manner. During the evening, Nick Adams (NWSFC) finished his final dissections of Dr. Lefebvre's fish study. He removed the liver, gastrointestinal tract, heart, brain and bile from each Northern anchovy. The specimens will be examined at their Seattle lab for domoic acid concentrations in the various tissues. Topic: Using Fluorescence to Measure Biomass If a friend asked you to describe your neighborhood, what would you tell him? How would you describe the vegetation? That seems easy if the primary producers are pine trees, shrubs or freshly cut lawns. How would you describe the vegetation of the open ocean? It is considerably more difficult to describe because of the size of the primary producers. Biological oceanographers usually describe the vegetation by determining biomass, the amount of 'living carbon.' If you consider the fact that phytoplankton make up about 95% of marine primary productivity, you would understand why marine ecologists are interested in finding out what's out there. The microscopic nature of these phototrophs makes field analysis rather difficult. Imagine flying over the ocean in a hot air balloon trying to sample with a bucket-how would you be able to quickly determine how much biomass is in the water? During a research cruise such as ECOHAB-PNW, scientists need a way to qualitatively determine how much living carbon is in the water. By filtering seawater and extracting the chlorophyll of autotrophic cells, the relative biomass can be determined by measuring fluorescence. Fluorescence is the absorption of light energy and its instantaneous emission as a longer wavelength, and can be used for both in vivo and extractive analyses. In vivo analysis is the direct measurement of chlorophyll in algal cells, without extraction or chemical treatment. These measurements can be taken using discrete or continuous-flow samples, and has the obvious advantages of speed of use, and the use of live cells without any extractive procedures. However, in vivo measurements are less sensitive than extracted methods, and are affected by environmental parameters including: temperature, light, phytoplankton species composition, and the physiological state of the phytoplankton cells (i.e., nutrient sufficiency). In vivo methods (such as CTD casts) are routinely employed to monitor the growth of phytoplankton cultures and to obtain qualitative depth profiles of phytoplankton biomass in natural systems. For quantitative determinations, in vivo data must be compared with other measurements, including fluorometric extractive (in vitro) measurements. The extraction process begins when water samples are collected from Niskin bottles into darkened sample bottles. Samples of a pre-determined volume (50-100 ml) are then filtered through 25-mm diameter GF/F (glass fiber filters) and 5 µm track-etched polycarbonate filters. Different filters are used to select the porosity (termed size fractionating) for each sample. After the water samples have been filtered, the filters are placed into pre-labeled 10-ml test tubes. The data (date of sample, volume and time) are recorded into a data book. The test tubes are then taken to a darkroom where 8 ml of 90% acetone are added to each test tube. The tubes are capped and taken to a freezer for approximately 24 hours before analysis. During this waiting period, the chlorophyll will be extracted by the acetone. The samples are then removed from the freezer, and allowed to come to room temperature in the dark while the Turner Designs 10-AU Field Fluorometer is turned on and allowed to warm up. Care must be taken that the samples are not exposed to ambient light because the extracted pigment can be easily degraded! After zeroing the fluorometer with a 90% acetone blank, a test tube sample (without the filter) is placed into the fluorometer. When the fluorescence value stabilizes, it is recorded onto a data sheet and the next sample is inserted. With the pre-recorded volumes and recorded fluorescence values, the amount of chlorophyll (in µg/L) can then be determined. This method is proven to be the most useful and practical method for determining the total quantity of phytoplankton in aquatic systems (seawater, freshwater, estuarine and unialgal cultures). When compared to satellite imagery, FlowCAM and microscope analyses, ECOHAB-PNW researchers can be sure of where to find high concentrations of phytoplankton.
Day 23 - Drifter Recovery 48º 25.22' N The R/V Thompson spent most of the day tracking down drifters and drogues. As mentioned in an earlier journal entry, these instruments are used to follow the horizontal movement of seawater around the Eddy. In a span of six hours, five of the drifters were recovered by Amy MacFadyen and Tom Connolly (both of Univ. Washington). Some of the drogued drifters were recovered without the drogue-lost, drifting in the cold depths of the Pacific Northwest. The rosette sampler was deployed at each drifter recovery site to profile the surrounding seawater. The last samples for domoic acid, nutrients and biomass were collected and processed. Fluorometer readings for chlorophyll extractions continued throughout the day and late into the evening (some are scheduled for 0300 hr on Tuesday) as the experiments continue to be broken down and cells harvested. With all of the experiments coming to an end, this means many final assays still need to be done. Outside on the fantail, the Plexiglas incubators and hoses were taken apart and cleaned with biodegradable detergent and fresh water to rid their sides of algal growth and slime. The amount of cleaning was eventually limited by the amount of daylight available. By sunset, most of the cleaning was done for the day, leaving Drs. Cochlan (RTC/SFSU) and Wells (Univ. Maine) soaking wet , but satisfied that their deck gear was ready to be packed away for their next cruise in 2007. Tomorrow will a much harder day with every lab group trying to pack their delicate and expensive equipment for shipment home to their respective laboratories around the country. Topic: After 5 Years of ECOHAB-PNW. We have learned that whenever we cruise into the Juan de Fuca Eddy that Pseudo-nitzschia cells containing domoic acid can be found. However, the abundance of PN cells, the amount of toxin they carry and the Eddy's location and strength has varied from year to year. There has also been a sub-variation of these conditions from early to late summer. During large toxic blooms, the PN cells have been found to be much smaller in size, possibly making them more efficient than the larger cells in their uptake of nutrients needed for growth. From drifter studies, it has been determined that Pseudo-nitzschia cells from the Eddy under stormy conditions can impact shellfish on the Washington coast. The intensity of that effect is controlled to a certain extent by the Columbia River plume-although more research is needed to study the plume's effect. There have been beach closures at Klaloch Beach (found about halfway up the Washington coast), but not at beaches south of the Columbia River in Oregon. It is possible that the river somehow obstructs the transfer of PN cells from the Eddy to the coastal areas most influenced by its low salinity waters. In general, Pseudo-nitzschia species are one of the most difficult diatoms to maintain and grow in laboratory cultures. Normally by rearing a phytoplankton species in culture over time, response to changes in their environment can be predicted. This series of six cruises that are the foundation for ECOHAB-PNW have demonstrated that this characteristic is also predictable in nature-particularly in this region. There is now a higher level of confidence about the locations and times when they might become toxic, and this field study has confirmed the results of culture studies that showed a high presence of PN does not necessarily mean that there is concentrations of toxin-they just don't make it all the time - there needs to be certain 'environmental triggers'. Toxin loads of Pseudo-nitzschia appear to be related to levels of trace metals: high concentrations of copper lead to high toxin levels, but low iron concentrations also lead to high toxin levels. The levels of copper needed to increase toxin production are much higher than natural levels (but similar to levels found in waters contaminated by human influences), so it is not thought that a high copper concentration is driving force for toxin production in the Pacific Northwest. . The distributional patterns of toxic cells and their levels of toxin seem to correlate to low concentrations of iron. This finding at the least, places the role of trace metal and toxin production on the right track for further study. Pseudo-nitzschia does not often "bloom" as a single species. When they are present in large numbers, they are typically found together with large numbers of other diatoms. There does not appear to be a special set of environmental conditions that can be used to "forecast" blooms of PN versus less problematic diatom species which support the rich marine ecosystem of the PNW. In addition, it has been confirmed that toxin production is not linked to ambient concentrations of macronutrients (nitrate, phosphate and silicate). This was once thought to be the case in most early cell culturing experiments using other PN species, but there does not appear to be a link at least in this region. Much has been learned about the dynamics of Pseudo-nitzschia growth. The PIs with their varied expertise have brought leadership and balance to this five-year multidisciplinary project. They've asked lots of questions and have many meetings to hash out what kinds of experiments were to be conducted and how every group were to complement the goals of learning more about PN dynamics. Their work here has assembled a major number of puzzle pieces into sizable chunks of knowledge. Some of the chunks can be linked together, enough so we might imagine what the whole picture may be, while others still are sitting on the side of the board waiting to find their place. Work that comes with further analysis ashore and even after ECOHAB-PNW runs out of funding will continue to assemble those key pieces to allow scientists to finish the puzzle. The scientists of ECOHAB-PNW are confident that their results will be instrumental in the development of predictive models that can accurately "forecast" harmful algal blooms in the future for both the PNW and other eastern boundary currents worldwide.
Day 24 - Curtain Call 48º 24.13' N Two more drifters were plucked out of the water along the Washington coast. Two of them were attached to drogues-giant sock-like nets that are quite cumbersome and difficult to retrieve. Although two drogues were lost yesterday, today's results fared much better as none were lost. Reeking of salt water and marine slime, the drogues were secured by Amy MacFadyen and Tom Connolly (Univ. Washington). Within minutes after breakfast, the lab areas were buzzing with people moving boxes, taking last minute readings, backing up data and cleaning sample bottles. On the fantail of the R/V Thompson, the Cochlan (RTC/SFSU) and Wells (Univ. Maine) groups were washing giant white boxes with the ship's fresh water hose. After more than three weeks of exposure to the sea, the boxes were caked in salt. Before packing the containers, they had to be hand dried with towels to remove the excess moisture to prevent mildew. Most of the contents will most likely stay in the boxes until the next cruise in 2007. Inside the lab, the Trainer (NWFSC) and Lessard (Univ. Washington) groups finished their final analyses and removed their delicate instruments from the workbenches. Placed into hard cases, they were moved toward the aft end of the R/V Thompson to be off-loaded in the morning. Julian Herndon (RTC/SFSU) and Peggy Hughes (Univ. California, Santa Cruz) led the charge to acid-wash every sample bottle brought onboard. The process started at 9 a.m. and is still going on. During the cleaning procedure, each bottle is cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid and then rinsed with 'nanopure' water. This water is processed by the vessel's Barnstead water system, providing water that is free of the contaminants and minerals normally found in standard plumbing systems. After a final rinse, each bottle is filled with nanopure water with a small amount of hydrochloric acid. The bottles are then placed into clean plastic bags and closed off by electronic sealing. The bottles are then loaded into gray plastic tote boxes, labeled as being clean, zip-tied and then taken to the fantail to be loaded into the large white containers. By bedtime, the lab will be buzzing for a different reason as people will be downloading and copying each others photos, tokens of a scientific adventure. This is a time when reality finally sets in that we are almost home-ready to see our families again. Although there were a lot of tired faces, there were also a lot of smiles.
Day 25 - Homecoming Participating as a teacher-at-sea is the best experience a science teacher can have. I like to think of this experience as hands-on staff development. Teaching science is more than just using a textbook, it's about bringing real life science into the classroom. I will be able to share with my students the experience of playing a part in a scientific research study aimed at understanding more about harmful algal blooms and helping those affected by domoic acid poisoning. I would like to thank Drs. Vera Trainer, Mark Wells and William Cochlan for spearheading the funds needed to host Christine Muir and myself. Thanks to them, we will share our scientific adventures with our students and staff. We return to our classrooms inspired and reinvigorated. I have enjoyed writing these entries and hope that in some way to have inspired you too.
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Denis Costello is a teacher at North High School (LA County) in Torrance, California. He currently teaches Chemistry, Marine Science, and a new course called Physical Science of the Earth. This cruise will be his third in as many years and looks forward to questions and emails from the public while he is on the cruise.
